Characterization of Use of the Pharmacy Curriculum Outcomes Assessment Across Accredited Colleges of Pharmacy.

Objective. To characterize use of the Pharmacy Curriculum Outcomes Assessment (PCOA) in terms of timing, manner of delivery, and application of the results by accredited colleges of pharmacy. Methods. Accredited pharmacy programs were surveyed regarding PCOA administration, perceived benefits, and practical application of score reports. Survey items were comprised of new items developed from a literature review and items from prior studies. The survey addressed five domains: program demographics, administration, student preparation, use of results, and recommendations to improve the utility of the PCOA. Results. Responses were received from 126 of 139 (91%) surveyed programs. The majority of respondent programs administered PCOA in one session on a single campus. Most indicated PCOA results had limited use for individual student assessment. Almost half reported that results were or could be useful in curriculum review and benchmarking. Considerable variability existed in the preparation and incentives for PCOA performance. Differences in some results were found based on prior PCOA experience and between new vs older programs. Open-ended responses provided suggestions to enhance the application and utility of PCOA. Conclusion. The intended uses of PCOA results, such as for student assessment, curricular review, and programmatic benchmarking, are not being implemented across the academy. Streamlining examination logistics, providing additional examination-related data, and clarifying the purpose of the examination to faculty members and students may increase the utility of PCOA results.

Quality Assurance and Improvement Practices of Experiential Education Programs in Schools of Pharmacy.

Objective. To identify common practices for measuring quality of experiential education (EE) programs at US schools and colleges of pharmacy. Methods. In-depth, semi-structured phone interviews were conducted with directors of experiential education or their equivalent, to identify elements of quality assurance (QA) processes for EE. To ensure representativeness from all fully accredited programs, purposeful sampling was used for participant solicitation and enrollment until both code and meaning saturation were reached. Participants were asked questions in six domain areas (preceptor and student performance, site quality, role of site visits, coursework, and achievement of learning outcomes). An iterative data coding and analysis process identified themes and notable practices within each domain area. Results. Interviews were conducted with representatives of 29 programs. All participants reported evaluating preceptor performance. Fewer participants identified a deliberate site assessment process, with most equating preceptor and site evaluation. Participants conducted site visits primarily to assess site quality and maintain relationships with preceptors. Few participants were able to provide details of a process used for evaluating experiential education coursework and student outcomes. All participants used student performance assessments to measure the quality of student performance. Overall, participants almost universally reported collecting data, less frequently described processes for data evaluation, and rarely shared outcomes arising from data collection and analysis. Conclusion. Themes and notable practices identified in this study provide initial benchmarks for QA programs for EE and will inform content and metrics of subsequent follow-up studies. A six-step process for QA for EE is proposed.

Surveying the current landscape of assessment structures and resources in US schools and colleges of pharmacy.

INTRODUCTION: Expectations for assessment in higher education have increased in recent decades, prompting institutions to invest additional resources in this area. This study aimed to determine the resources, structure, and perception of assessment resources in United States schools and colleges of pharmacy (S/COPs). METHODS: Assessment personnel in S/COPs were surveyed electronically. Information collected included S/COP demographics, composition of assessment positions, experience and training of assessment personnel, and structure and responsibilities of committees engaged in assessment. Respondents' perception of their S/COPs having sufficient assessment personnel, recent changes in assessment, and the factors that prompted assessment changes were also surveyed. RESULTS: Respondents included individuals from 113 S/COPs (84% response rate). Most S/COPs had 1-2 assessment positions and 1-2 assessment-related committees. The most common assessment position titles were assistant/associate dean, director, coordinator/specialist, and administrative assistant. Dean-level administrators typically had worked in assessment the longest, whereas directors were more likely to have formal assessment training. Most respondents (75%) agreed they had sufficient assessment personnel to meet the 2007 Accreditation Council for Pharmacy Education Standards. Nearly two-thirds of respondents agreed they had sufficient personnel to meet the 2016 Standards and support their current assessment plan/process. Most S/COPs had a formal assessment committee (93%) and an average of two committees overseeing assessment. CONCLUSION: Most S/COPs reported having sufficient resources to support assessment activities. Although there were some consistent themes, there does not appear to be a single model for structuring assessment resources or committees. Effectiveness of various assessment structures represents an area for future research.

Factors associated with cultures of assessment at US schools and colleges of pharmacy.

INTRODUCTION: Pharmacy education has standards for assessment that must be met, prompting many programs to develop cultures of assessment. This study assesses the extent to which assessment personnel perceive that a culture of assessment has been established within their schools/colleges of pharmacy (S/COPs) and determines whether a relationship exists between assessment structure and the perceived strength of the culture of assessment. METHODS: An electronic survey was administered to assessment personnel at 134 S/COPs. Respondents were asked about changes within the past five years pertaining to assessment personnel/committees and factors prompting these changes. They were also asked to rate items related to support for institutional assessment (SIA scale) and faculty engagement with assessment (FEA scale). The reliability of each scale was estimated using Cronbach alpha and bivariate correlations were conducted to estimate the relationships among the two scales and other survey items. RESULTS: The S/COP response rate was 84% (113/134). Most (58%) noted the formation or re-structuring of the assessment office, with 26% creating one or more new assessment positions. The most common source of change was new accreditation standards (55%) followed by a new leadership position created in assessment (40%). Cronbach alpha for the SIA scale was 0.79 and 0.84 for the FEA scale. Program size was strongly negatively correlated with school age (rs = -0.58) and the FEA scale (r = -0.21). CONCLUSIONS: There was a strong relationship between SIA and FEA. Future studies are warranted to determine the interdependency of support for assessment and faculty engagement with assessment.

Educational Attainment and Academic Profile of Deans and Chairs at US Pharmacy Schools.

Objective. To characterize educational attainment and experiences of current US pharmacy school deans and chairs. Methods. A cross-sectional study using a publicly available listing of accredited schools and information. Results. Among 134 deans and 301 chairs, 79.9% and 65.5% held a professional degree (BSPharm and/or PharmD), 33.6% and 26.2% completed PGY-1 residencies, 12.7% and 15.6% completed post-PharmD fellowships, 23.1% and 33.9% completed post-doctoral fellowships, and 13.4% and 18.3% held BPS certification, respectively. Fewer than 1 in 5 were employed at an alma mater. Ninety (20.7%) deans and chairs completed AACP's Academic Leadership Fellows Program. Average current tenure was 5.7 and 5.1 years for deans and chairs, respectively. Conclusion. The majority of deans and chairs held a pharmacy professional degree and the prevalence of post-graduate educational and leadership training is increasing. Future research should apply mixed methods to investigate educational attainment and employment experience of deans and chairs, institutional hiring trends, and how these characteristics compare between newer and established programs.

Educational Background and Academic Rank of Faculty Members within US Schools of Pharmacy.

Objective. To characterize the educational background and academic rank of faculty members in US schools of pharmacy, estimate the extent to which they are employed by institutions where they received previous training, and determine whether differences in degree origin and rank exist between faculty members in established (≤1995) vs newer programs. Methods. A cross-sectional study was conducted using the American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy (AACP) faculty database and demographic information from the public domain. Results. Among 5516 faculty members, 50.3% held two or more types of degrees. Established schools had a higher median number of faculty members and a higher mean faculty rank than did newer schools. Conclusion. The difference in mean faculty rank highlights the shortage of experienced faculty members in newer schools. Future research efforts should investigate educational attainment in correlation to other faculty and school characteristics and prospectively track and report trends related to pharmacy faculty members composition.

Scholarly contributions of required senior research projects in a doctor of pharmacy curriculum.

OBJECTIVE: To determine dissemination outcomes and faculty perceptions of senior research projects conducted from 2008 to 2011 by PharmD students in a curricular pathway focused on direct patient care. METHODS: Preceptors' reported dissemination outcomes of research projects were surveyed and their perceptions of the precepting experience were rated using a web-based survey. Results were compared to those from an earlier pharmaceutical care cohort (2002-2007) and a combined cohort of 2, more research-intensive curricular pathways at the school. RESULTS: The overall response rate was 90.2%. Project dissemination included 61.3% at an institutional forum, 42.3% as a submitted publication, 37.8% as a poster, and 4.5% as an oral presentation. Projects completed from 2008-2011 were significantly more likely than those from 2002-2007 to be submitted for publication (42.3% vs 10.7%, p<0.001) and published (28.8% vs 5.3%, p<0.001). Most preceptors found their research projects valuable to them professionally (88.3%) and to their own or another institution (83.5% and 78.5%, respectively). Ninety-five percent of preceptors would precept again. CONCLUSION: Dissemination rates for pharmaceutical care projects increased over time. Despite modest dissemination levels, the majority of preceptors agreed that required student research projects provide a valuable learning experience for students.

A nontraditional faculty development initiative using a social media platform.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the outcomes from an 11-year nontraditional professional development activity implemented by female faculty members at several colleges and schools of pharmacy. DESIGN: Within the context of an online fantasy football league, faculty members practiced community-based faculty development strategies, including peer mentoring, skills development, constructive feedback and other supportive behaviors. ASSESSMENT: Data were extracted from curriculum vitae to characterize the academic progress of participants and to quantify scholarly work collaborations among league members. Analyses were limited to members who had participated in the league for 10 or more consecutive years. Seventy-one collaborative scholarly works occurred among team managers, including presentation of 20 posters and 2 oral presentations at national or international meetings, publication of 29 peer-reviewed articles and 15 book chapters, and funding of 5 research projects. CONCLUSION: Social media platforms can foster nontraditional faculty development and mentoring by enhancing connectivity between pharmacy educators who share similar interests.

Development needs of volunteer pharmacy practice preceptors.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the training needs and interests of volunteer pharmacy preceptors. METHODS: Volunteer preceptors (n=576) were surveyed on various aspects of precepting and their needs related to additional training. RESULTS: Two hundred thirty-six preceptors (40.9%) responded. Preceptors were less confident about enforcing attendance policies, identifying and managing unmotivated or failing students, identifying dishonesty or plagiarism, and handling conflict. While only 29.5% of respondents agreed that having an APPE student decreased their overall workload, approximately half (48.1%) indicated that student pharmacists helped them complete their daily tasks and 67.8% agreed that APPE students extended patient care. Respondents who had received training were significantly more confident than preceptors who had not received training in their abilities to clarify expectations, evaluate a student's knowledge, and foster skills related to critical thinking and problem solving. CONCLUSIONS: Training programs for pharmacy preceptors are effective; however, important areas in which additional training is needed or desired were identified among both new and experienced preceptors.

National Survey of Volunteer Pharmacy Preceptors: effects of region, practice setting, and population density on responses.

OBJECTIVES: To survey volunteer pharmacy preceptors regarding experiential education and determine whether differences in responses relate to such factors as geographic region, practice setting, and population density. METHODS: An online survey was sent to 4396 volunteer experiential preceptors. The survey consisted of 41 questions asking the preceptor to comment on the experiential education environment. Experiential education administrators from 9 schools of pharmacy administered the survey to their volunteer preceptors in all regions (Northeast, Midwest, South, and West) of the United States, in various pharmacy practice settings, and areas of differing population densities. RESULTS: A total of 1163 (26.5%) preceptors responded. Regionally, preceptors in the West disagreed more than those in the Midwest and the South that they had enough time to spend with students to provide a quality experience and also required compensation less often than their counterparts in the Northeast and South. Concerning practice settings, hospital preceptors accepted students from more schools, had greater increases in requests, turned away more students, and spent less time with the students compared to preceptors in other settings. Population density differences reflected that preceptors at urban sites took and turned away more students than those at rural sites. Preceptors from rural areas spent more time with students and felt they were spending enough time with their students to provide quality experiences when compared to other preceptors. CONCLUSIONS: The results of this national volunteer preceptor survey may assist pharmacy school leaders in understanding how location, practice type, and population density affect experiential education, preceptor time-quality issues, and site compensation so they can take necessary actions to improve quality of student practice experiences.

Caring for the underserved: exemplars in teaching.

The objective was to identify exemplars in teaching pharmacy students awareness, knowledge, and the skills needed to provide care and services to the underserved. A call for exemplars was sent out in spring 2007. A subcommittee of the AACP Task Force on Caring for the Underserved reviewed all applications received. The 3 best exemplars for teaching pharmacy students the awareness, attitudes, knowledge, and skills needed to care for the underserved were selected and are described in this manuscript. Included are 1 didactic, 1 experiential, and 1 international experience. These exemplars in educating students on working with the underserved provide schools with models which could be adapted to fit individual programmatic curricular needs.

Fostering and managing diversity in schools of pharmacy.

Organizational benefits of diversity in the workplace have been well documented. In health professions, however, diversity-related research traditionally has focused on the effect of diversity on health care disparities. Few tools exist describing the benefits of diversity from an organizational standpoint to guide pharmacy administrators and faculty members in nurturing and developing a culture of diversity. Given the scarcity of pharmacy specific data, experience from other academic areas and national/international diversity reports were incorporated into this manuscript to supplement the available pharmacy evidence base. This review summarizes the benefits of diversity from an academic organizational standpoint, discusses the issues administrators and faculty members must consider when developing programs, and provides guidance on best practices in fostering and managing diversity.

Curriculum recommendations of the AACP-PSSC task force on caring for the underserved.

A task force was convened by the American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy (AACP) and the Pharmaceutical Services Support Center (PSSC) and charged with the development of a curriculum framework to guide pharmacy programs in educating students on caring for the underserved. Utilizing a literature-based model, the task force constructed a framework that delineated evidence-based practice, clinical prevention and health promotion, health systems and policy, and community aspects of practice. Specific learning outcomes tailored to underserved populations were crafted and linked to resources readily available to the academy. The AACP-PSSC curriculum framework was shared with the academy in 2007. Schools and Colleges are urged to share experiences with implementation so that the impact of the tool can be evaluated. The task force recommends that the AACP Institutional Research Advisory Committee be involved in gathering assessment data. Implementation of the curriculum framework can help the academy fulfill the professional mandate to proactively provide the highest quality care to all, including underserved populations.

National survey of volunteer pharmacy preceptors.

OBJECTIVES: To survey pharmacy preceptors regarding experiential education and determine the implications of the findings on colleges and schools of pharmacy. METHODS: An online survey was sent to 4,396 experiential sites. The survey instrument consisted of 41 questions regarding the experiential education environment from the preceptor's perspective (eg, experiential load, time-quality issues, compensation, etc). RESULTS: One thousand one hundred sixty-three preceptors responded (26.5%) to the survey. Concerning experiential load, 73% took 2 or more students in the past year and almost half of the sites had to turn placements away. Nearly all preceptors felt that the more time they spent with students, the higher quality the experience, and 20% felt they didn't have enough time to provide a quality experience. Thirty-six percent of respondents chose monetary stipend as the form of compensation they valued most. CONCLUSIONS: This study provides insights into the issues that concern volunteer preceptors and the findings could be used to enhance the quality of experiential education in pharmacy.

Evaluation of a train-the-trainer program for cultural competence.

OBJECTIVES: To develop, implement, and evaluate the impact of a cultural competence train-the-trainer workshop for pharmacy educators. METHODS: A 2-day train-the-trainer workshop entitled Incorporating Cultural Competency in Pharmacy Education (1.65 CEUs) was provided to pharmacy faculty from schools across the United States. Baseline, posttraining, and 9-month follow-up surveys assessed participants' (n = 50) characteristics and self-efficacy in developing and teaching content. RESULTS: At baseline, 94% of faculty members reported no formal training in teaching cultural competence. After completing the workshop, participants' self-rated confidence for developing and teaching workshop content significantly increased. The number of participants who rated their ability to teach cultural competence as "very good" or "excellent" increased from 13% to 60% posttraining. Participants reported teaching 1 or more aspects of the workshop curriculum to nearly 3,000 students in the 9-months following training. CONCLUSIONS: The workshop significantly increased faculty members' perceived and documented ability to teach cultural competence. The train-the-trainer model appears to be a viable and promising strategy for meeting the American Council for Pharmacy Education accreditation standards relating to the teaching of diversity, cultural issues, and health literacy.

Psychometric analysis of a scale assessing self-efficacy for cultural competence in patient counseling.

BACKGROUND: The Accreditation Council for Pharmacy Education adopted revised accreditation standards and guidelines for the PharmD degree program in January 2006. The revised standards mandate the inclusion of cultural competence in pharmacy curricula. Assessment tools to evaluate the impact of training are needed. OBJECTIVE: To examine the psychometric properties of a 12 item scale designed to estimate the impact of cultural competence training on pharmacy students' self-efficacy in providing culturally appropriate patient care. METHODS: A 12 item scale to assess the impact of an elective course on pharmacy students' (N = 175; 173 analyzable) perceived self-efficacy in providing culturally competent patient care was used before and after students completed the training. Principal components analysis was conducted to examine the underlying structure of the scale, and the Cronbach alpha statistic was computed as an estimate of internal consistency. Pre-versus posttraining responses for each item and for the total scale scores were compared as an indicator of concurrent validity. RESULTS: The principal components analysis yielded a one-component solution, "self-efficacy for cultural competence," which included all 12 contributing items and accounted for 46% of the total variance. Item communalities ranged from 0.25 to 0.58. Component loadings ranged from 0.50 to 0.76. Overall, the scale exhibited a Cronbach alpha estimate of internal consistency of 0.89. Posttraining scores were significantly higher than pretraining scores for both the total scale scores (posttest and pretest mean +/- SD score = 47.96 +/- 5.15 and 34.21 +/- 6.19, respectively; p < 0.001) and for each item (p values < 0.001). These comparisons provide evidence of concurrent validity. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that our 12 item scale exhibits acceptable psychometric properties and is a useful tool for estimating the impact of cultural competence training on pharmacy students' perceived self-efficacy for providing culturally competent care and services.

Implementation and evaluation of cultural competency training for pharmacy students.

BACKGROUND: The demographic composition of the US population is rapidly changing. As a result, pharmacists increasingly face the need to interact effectively with and provide care for patients whose ethnic or cultural background may differ from their own. While schools implement curricula to provide pharmacy students with cultural awareness, knowledge, and communication skills they will need in practice, few assessment tools exist to evaluate the impact or effectiveness of such training. OBJECTIVE: To implement and assess the impact of a cultural competency training course designed specifically for pharmacy students. METHODS: An 8-hour elective course offering basic cultural competency training was provided to 60 first-through fourth-year pharmacy students in 2003. A 12-item survey assessing students' perceived awareness, knowledge, and communication skills in the areas of cultural competence and cross-cultural communication skills was administered immediately prior to and upon completion of the course. Surveys were linked, enabling estimation of within-student change as a result of exposure to the program. RESULTS: Fifty-six paired surveys (96.6% of participants) were analyzable. Responses to all survey items (p < 0.05) and total scores (t55 = 16.27; p < 0.001) increased significantly from pre- to posttraining. The mean +/- SD 12-item pretraining scale score was 33.35 +/- 5.48 (range 21-44), and the mean posttraining scale score was 47.88 +/- 4.90 (range 36-59). CONCLUSIONS: Survey results suggest that the course successfully raised student awareness of diversity and provided basic knowledge and skills pertaining to cultural competence and cross-cultural communication.

Assessment of an online consumer "Ask Your Pharmacist" service.

OBJECTIVE: To describe consumer demographics and the types of questions submitted to an online Ask Your Pharmacist (AYP) drug information service. METHODS: This is a retrospective review of a sample of consecutive queries submitted online to an AYP service between 1999 and 2000. All data were coded, transcribed, and evaluated in a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet. Data regarding gender, age, patient relationship to consumer, allergies, medical conditions, products, and question types were evaluated. RESULTS: One thousand eighty-seven queries involving drug information or health-related questions were evaluated: 65% of the queries were from consumers requesting information for themselves; 55.2% of queries originated from women; 61% of consumers were between 19 and 55 years of age. The 5 most listed medical conditions were depression-related, hypertension, allergies, pain, and infectious disease. More than 60% of the questions involved prescription or over-the-counter (OTC) medications; another 10% targeted herbal products or dietary supplements. Consumers were most interested in drug efficacy, safety, and drug interactions. CONCLUSIONS: An AYP online service is a relatively new, unique way for consumers to receive medication information. Consumers of all ages use AYP services for both acute and chronic conditions. Most consumers asked questions related to their own health or medications. Consumers were more likely to ask questions related to prescription and OTC medications than to botanical and dietary supplements. Consumers were primarily interested in drug efficacy and adverse effects.